The Collaborative International Dictionary
confounding \confounding\ adj. tending to contradict (a hypothesis).
Syn: contradictory.
confounding \confounding\ n. a mistake that results from taking one thing to be another.
Syn: confusion, mix-up.
Wiktionary
n. The act by which things are confounded, or confused. vb. (present participle of confound English)
WordNet
adj. that confounds or contradicts or confuses [syn: contradictory]
Wikipedia
In statistics, a confounding variable (also confounding factor, a confound, a lurking variable or a confounder) is an extraneous variable in a statistical model that correlates (directly or inversely) with both the dependent variable and the independent variable.
A spurious relationship is a perceived relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable that has been estimated incorrectly because the estimate fails to account for a confounding factor. The incorrect estimation suffers from omitted-variable bias.
While specific definitions may vary, in essence a confounding variable fits the following four criteria, here given in a hypothetical situation with variable of interest "V", confounding variable "C" and outcome of interest "O":
- C is associated (inversely or directly) with O
- C is associated with O, independent of V
- C is associated (inversely or directly) with V
- C is not in the causal pathway of V to O (C is not a direct consequence of V, not a way by which V produces O)
The preceding correlation-based definition, however, is metaphorical at best – a growing number of analysts agree that confounding is a causal concept, and as such, cannot be described in terms of correlations nor associations (see causal definition).
Usage examples of "confounding".
It is easy for faction and calumny to shed their poison on the administration of the best of princes, and to accuse even their virtues by artfully confounding them with those vices to which they bear the nearest affinity.
Then followed the confusing and confounding impressions of the landing, where the great nation, compelled by experience, seems to guard itself against the instreaming invasion of undesired elements, and investigates and selects with humiliating, apparently heartless strictness, as though we were animals to be examined.
The art of Gibbon, or at least the unfair impression produced by his two memorable chapters, consists in his confounding together, in one indistinguishable mass, the origin and apostolic propagation of the new religion, with its later progress.
But as the historian, by seeming to respect, yet by dexterously confounding the limits of the sacred land, contrived to insinuate that it was an Utopia which had no existence but in the imagination of the theologian - as he suggested rather than affirmed that the days of Christian purity were a kind of poetic golden age.
Guizot has been guilty of a still greater inaccuracy in confounding the deification of the living with the apotheosis of the dead emperors.
Gibbon appears to have been mistaken both in confounding this donative on discharge with the annual pay, and in not paying attention to the remark of Valois on the transposition of the numbers in the text.
It is easy for faction and calumny to shed their poison on the administration of the best of princes, and to accuse even their virtues by artfully confounding them with those vices to which they bear the nearest affinity.
Yet a secret and incurable discord was cherished, between those who were most apprehensive of confounding, and those who were most fearful of separating, the divinity, and the humanity, of Christ.
The nameless epigrammatist raises a tolerable pun, by confounding the episcopal salutation of "Peace be to all!
The art of Gibbon, or at least the unfair impression produced by his two memorable chapters, consists in his confounding together, in one indistinguishable mass, the origin and apostolic propagation of the new religion, with its later progress.
But as the historian, by seeming to respect, yet by dexterously confounding the limits of the sacred land, contrived to insinuate that it was an Utopia which had no existence but in the imagination of the theologian - as he suggested rather than affirmed that the days of Christian purity were a kind of poetic golden age.
Gibbon appears to have been mistaken both in confounding this donative on discharge with the annual pay, and in not paying attention to the remark of Valois on the transposition of the numbers in the text.
Imagine twenty thousand of them breaking into the midst of an European army, confounding the ranks, overturning the carriages, battering the warriors' faces into mummy by terrible yerks from their hinder hoofs.
And this was the most perplexing and confounding circumstance in my difficulties, that when the ape had finally had his way, he rewarded me for it by a feeling of physical refreshment and comfort, by a consciousness of renewed and invigorated life, a clearing of thought, an increased activity and capacity for enjoyment.
And confounding EldersTorkes and Ampris are adventures to lighten my darkest hour -- « »Which might yet be in a rehab booth!